Báo cáo Study on economics and socioeconomics of small scale mango farming and cooperatives in the Mekong River Delta, Vietnam
CARD PROJECT 050/040 VIE
Improvement of export and domestic markets for
Vietnamese fruit through improved post-harvest and
supply chain management
Study on economics and socioeconomics
of small scale mango farming and
cooperatives in the Mekong River Delta,
Vietnam.
By Mr Robert Nissen1, Mr Nguyen Duy Duc2, Ms San Tram Anh2, Ms Tran Thi Kim Oanh2, Ms.
Tran Thi Ngoc Diep2, Mr Vu Cong Khanh2, Mr Ngo Van Binh2, Mr Le Minh Hung2, Mr Tran Ngoc
Linh2, Dr. Nguyen Minh Chau3, Mr Doan Huu Tien3, Mr Ta Minh Tuan3, Dr. Le Thi Hong3, Dr
Nguyen Thi Nhat Hang3, Dr. Ian Russel4, & Dr. Marlo Rankin4.
1 Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (DPI&F) , Maroochy Research Station,
PO Box 5083 SCMC, Queensland, Australia, 4560.
2 Southern Sub-Institute of Agricultural Engineering and Post-Harvest Technology (SIAEP), 54 Tran
Khanh Du Street, District 1, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.
3 Southern Horticulture Research Institute (SHRI) formerly known as the Southern Fruit Research
Institute (SOFRI), Long Dinh-Chau Thanh, P0 Box 203 My Tho Tien Giang, Vietnam.
4University of Queensland, Gatton College, School of Natural and Rural Systems Management, Gatton
Campus, Lawes Queensland, 4343, Australia.
CARD Project 050/04 VIE Improvement of Vietnamese fruit through improved post-harvest and supply chain management
© The State of Queensland, Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008.
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CARD Project 050/04 VIE Improvement of Vietnamese fruit through improved post-harvest and supply chain management
Table of Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...................................................................................................... 1
BACKGROUND....................................................................................................................... 4
OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY........................................................................................... 5
STUDY TEAM ......................................................................................................................... 5
METHODOLOGY................................................................................................................... 6
SECTION 1 RESULTS:- SOCIOECONOMIC COMPONENTS OF VIETNAM............ 7
POPULATION DEMOGRAPHICS .................................................................................................. 7
Demographics of Vietnam.................................................................................................. 7
Demographics In The Major Cities of Vietnam ................................................................. 8
Demographics In The Two Major Regions of Vietnam...................................................... 9
Demographics and Rural Women ...................................................................................... 9
Demographics of CARD Project Trainers, Trainees and Workshop Attendees and
Information Obtained on The Role of Women in The Vietnamese Farming Society ......... 9
CARD Project Team ................................................................................................................. 10
CARD Project Trainees............................................................................................................. 10
Demographics of Workshops this CARD Project Conducted.................................................... 11
DEPENDENCY RATES ............................................................................................................. 11
FERTILITY RATES................................................................................................................... 11
MORTALITY RATES................................................................................................................ 12
HEALTH AND HEALTH CARE .................................................................................................. 12
Smoking............................................................................................................................ 12
EDUCATION........................................................................................................................... 13
Education and effects on CARD Project Conducted................................................................. 14
POST AND COMMUNICATION NETWORKS .............................................................................. 15
AGRICULTURAL NETWORKS.................................................................................................. 16
BANKING MARKETPLACE AND AGRO-FORESTRY PROCESSING FACILITIES. .......................... 16
Banking............................................................................................................................. 16
SOCIAL POLICIES IN RURAL AREAS....................................................................................... 16
LABOUR ................................................................................................................................ 17
Rural labour force............................................................................................................ 17
ECONOMY ............................................................................................................................. 19
Economic Effects on CARD Project Conducted .............................................................. 20
TAXES ................................................................................................................................... 21
INCOME ................................................................................................................................. 21
EXPENDITURE........................................................................................................................ 23
RURAL INFRASTRUCTURE...................................................................................................... 23
Electricity ......................................................................................................................... 23
Roads................................................................................................................................ 24
CLIMATE ............................................................................................................................... 24
LAND..................................................................................................................................... 24
Farm land policy and farm development ......................................................................... 26
Some land use laws on farm size and period of use......................................................... 27
Soil Implication in the CARD Project......................................................................................... 28
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CARD Project 050/04 VIE Improvement of Vietnamese fruit through improved post-harvest and supply chain management
WATER.................................................................................................................................. 28
Rural water supply ........................................................................................................... 28
Irrigation and Water Management Practices and Implication for the CARD Project.................. 29
Environmental Implications for CARD Project ............................................................... 29
Agricultural Chemical Usage..................................................................................................... 30
SECTION 2 A:- ASSUMAPTION FOR THE SOCIOECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF
THE CAT HO LOC MANGO SUPPLY CHAINS ............................................................. 31
MANGO VIETNAM ................................................................................................................. 31
Assumptions...................................................................................................................... 31
SECTION 2 (B):- RESULTS OF THE ANALYSES OF CAT HOA LOC MANGO
SUPPY CHAINS IN THE MEKONG DELTA OF VIETNAM. ....................................... 35
FAMILY HOUSEHOLD OR FARM ORCHARD ............................................................................ 35
GROSS YIELD & MARKETABLE YIELD .................................................................................. 35
FAMER LEVEL....................................................................................................................... 35
Farm Production ....................................................................................................................... 35
Marketable Fruit & Baskets per hectare.......................................................................... 35
Farm Revenue .................................................................................................................. 36
Farm Variable Expenses.................................................................................................. 37
Farm Total Growing Expenses ........................................................................................ 38
Farm Total Variable Costs............................................................................................... 39
Farm Gross Margins........................................................................................................ 39
Farm Fixed Costs............................................................................................................. 40
Farm Total Fixed Costs.................................................................................................... 40
Farm Break Even Point.................................................................................................... 41
Farm Net Returns............................................................................................................. 41
COLLECTOR........................................................................................................................... 42
Volume Handled by Collector ................................................................................................... 42
Collector Product Purchase Costs................................................................................... 42
Collector Product Sale Price ........................................................................................... 43
Collector Variable Costs.................................................................................................. 43
Collector Gross Margins.................................................................................................. 45
Collector Fixed Costs....................................................................................................... 45
Collector Capital Costs.................................................................................................... 46
Collector Total Fixed Costs ............................................................................................. 46
Collector Break Even Point.............................................................................................. 46
Collector Net Returns....................................................................................................... 47
WHOLESALER:- LOCAL MARKET ........................................................................................... 48
Volume Handled by Wholesaler....................................................................................... 48
Local Wholesaler Product Purchase Costs...................................................................... 48
Local Wholesaler Product Sale Price .............................................................................. 48
Local Wholesaler Variable Costs..................................................................................... 49
Local Wholesaler Gross Margins .................................................................................... 50
Local Wholesaler Fixed Costs.......................................................................................... 50
Local Wholesaler Capital Costs....................................................................................... 51
Local Wholesaler Total Fixed Costs ................................................................................ 51
Local Wholesaler Break Even Point ................................................................................ 51
Local Wholesaler Net Returns.......................................................................................... 52
COOPERATIVE ....................................................................................................................... 53
Volume Handled by Cooperative .............................................................................................. 53
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CARD Project 050/04 VIE Improvement of Vietnamese fruit through improved post-harvest and supply chain management
Cooperative Product Purchase Costs .............................................................................. 54
Cooperative Product Sale Price....................................................................................... 55
Cooperative Variable Costs ............................................................................................. 56
Cooperative Gross Margins............................................................................................. 57
Cooperative Fixed Costs .................................................................................................. 57
Cooperative Capital Costs ............................................................................................... 58
Cooperative Total Fixed Costs......................................................................................... 59
Cooperative Break Even Point......................................................................................... 59
Cooperative Net Returns .................................................................................................. 60
WHOLESALER:- HO CHI MINH CITY ..................................................................................... 61
Volume Handled by Wholesaler (HCMC)........................................................................ 61
Wholesaler (HCMC) Product Purchase Costs................................................................. 61
Wholesaler (HCMC) Product Sale Price......................................................................... 61
Wholesaler (HCMC) Variable Costs................................................................................ 62
Wholesaler (HCMC) Gross Margins ............................................................................... 63
Wholesaler (HCMC) Fixed Costs .................................................................................... 63
Wholesaler (HCMC) Capital Costs.................................................................................. 64
Wholesaler (HCMC) Total Fixed Costs........................................................................... 64
Wholesaler (HCMC) Break Even Point ........................................................................... 64
Wholesaler (HCMC) Net Returns .................................................................................... 65
RETAILER (FRUIT SHOP)........................................................................................................ 66
Volume handled by Retailer............................................................................................. 66
Retailer Purchase Price ................................................................................................... 66
Retailer Product Sale Price.............................................................................................. 67
Retailer ariable Costs....................................................................................................... 67
Retailer Gross Margins.................................................................................................... 68
Retailer Fixed Costs......................................................................................................... 69
Retailer Infrastructure Costs............................................................................................ 70
Retailer Total Fixed Costs................................................................................................ 70
Retailer Break Even Point................................................................................................ 70
Retailer Net Returns......................................................................................................... 70
SECTION 2 (C):- COMPARISON OF THE SUPPLY/VALUE CHAINS AT THE FARMER LEVEL........ 71
Traditional Supply/Value Chain (Farmer Supplies to Local Markets Only through
Collector) ......................................................................................................................... 71
Revenue ............................................................................................................................ 71
Net Returns....................................................................................................................... 72
Traditional Supply/Value Chains whre Farmers have developed new markets in HCMC
for Extra Class and Class 1 fruit (Tet Holiday and HCMC). .......................................... 73
Revenue ............................................................................................................................ 74
Net Returns....................................................................................................................... 74
New GAP and Supply/Value Chains with New markets developed in HCMC for Class 1
fruit (Tet Holiday and HCMC)......................................................................................... 75
Revenue ............................................................................................................................ 76
Net Returns....................................................................................................................... 76
New Improved GAP Management by Cat Hoa Loc Mango Group / Cooperative based
Best Practice Standards for Metro Supply Chain ............................................................ 77
Revenue ............................................................................................................................ 78
Net Returns....................................................................................................................... 78
CONCLUSIONS..................................................................................................................... 79
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Socioeconomic status of farmers in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam.................................. 79
Economic Comparisons of Mango Supply/Value Chians ................................................ 80
RESOLUTIONS & CIRCULARS ISSUED OR DECREED BY THE VIETNAMESE
GOVERNMENT REFFERED TO IN THIS DOCUMENT. ............................................. 82
REFERENCES....................................................................................................................... 83
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CARD Project 050/04 VIE Improvement of Vietnamese fruit through improved post-harvest and supply chain management
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
SOCIOECONOMIC ISSUES
The average population growth rate in Vietnam in the early 1990’s was 3.5%, but it is now slowing to
1.35%. This may be due several factors; a decreased in fertility rates and better education provided to
the ethnic minority groups who traditionally had large families and an increase in living standards. The
Mekong Delta population growth rate is 2%, 0.65% above the average for Vietnam.
The implementation of “doi moi” and poverty reduction policies by the Vietnamese Government have
made significant progress in reducing poverty. The average poverty rate in Vietnam is now 19%. The
poverty rate in the Mekong Delta is still at 13.3% with a further 20% of households living just above the
poverty line. This economic recession could see a change in poverty rates, people are migrating from
the cities back to their families in the country due to a downturn in employment opportunities.
The Mekong Delta Economic Cooperation stated that the Mekong Delta provides 90% of rice exports,
70% of fruit production and 60% of aquatic products exported from Vietnam. Therefore, whenever
people mention to the Mekong Delta, they usually mention its advantages. People usually consider the
Mekong Delta region as a "rich food but poor knowledge" region. Education and training of people is
low. For example, the number of regional students studying in the vocational schools is at the lowest
rate. Because of its low intellectual standard, compared with the whole country, the Mekong Delta has
not reached its full potential and regional agricultural production is unsustainable and the poverty rate
will increase if this continues. Farmers with higher education levels appear to be able to understand
problems and apply new technologies to solve those problems, whilst farmers with lower education
levels implement traditional farming practices and hope the problems that they face will be solved by
someone else.
About 40% of the Mekong Delta is affected by acid sulphate soils (ASS). Disturbance of ASS through land
clearance, drainage, tillage and mounding can cause acid runoffs into the aquatic and marine
environment, either killing fish or increasing the incidence of disease in the marine population. Saline
soils also present further constraints to agricultural development and are located primarily in the coastal
zone. Development of new, and re-establishment of existing orchards will require soil to be either moved
or disturbed, and a management plan will be needed to eliminate the runoff of acid or nutrients trapped in
the soil into the environment
Good farm and orchard design is essential to ensure any water, fertiliser, chemicals and soil runoff is
trapped on farm. This is an essential element of GAP. This element is often overlooked or neglected
due to the cost of re-establishing an orchard or loss of viable producing area to ensure the environment
is protected. There are no incentives or subsidies and farmers are forced to provide these costs out
their own pocket, reducing their viability even though there are wider social, ecological and
environmental benefits, such as reduced incidences of contractible diseases, cleaner environment,
fewer pollutants and a healthier life for the community from such practices.
Farmers and other pesticide users usually ignore the risks, safety instructions and essential protective
measures in using chemicals. Records showed that 11% of all poisonings in the country are due to
pesticides: approximately 840 poisonings in 53 cities and provinces in 1999 in Vietnam. Surveys
conducted by the Plant Protection Department have shown that 80% of farmers in the South of Vietnam
consider pesticide application the essential component of the production system compared with other
control practices. Overuse and use of incorrect chemicals will have a significant impact on obtaining
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CARD Project 050/04 VIE Improvement of Vietnamese fruit through improved post-harvest and supply chain management
GAP and quality assurance for mango and pomelo in the Mekong Delta for both domestic and export
markets.
Environmental issues identified during consultation with farmers during this CARD Project participatory
action learning workshops. These were:
•
•
•
•
•
contamination of irrigation water (salt and grey water)
disposal of grey water and by product contamination of waterways
agricultural spray application methodology and practices
type and amount of fertiliser, their application methods to reduce environmental contamination
mixed farming methodology and cultural practices (mixed plant and animal farming practices)
Poor agricultural practices can create serious problems in the Mekong Delta and contamination of land
and waterways through:
•
•
•
•
soil management and disturbance (particularly acid sulphate soils (ASS))
incorrect water management and irrigation systems
incorrect and constant use of agricultural chemicals (insecticides, growth regulators etc.)
incorrect use of fertilisers (both organic and inorganic)
This may lead to:
•
•
•
increase salinity
decrease in productivity of crops and local aquaculture
spread of contaminants, poisoning and increase of infectious diseases with in the local
community
•
•
damage to the local ecology
and loss of employment through reduced productivity
In Vietnam, there is a significant need to develop small and medium agricultural enterprises. Many
farmers groups are trying to develop and establish small and medium agricultural enterprises, but. these
groups face many difficulties. One major hurdle is the borrowing of money from banks to expand or
extend their operations. Banks prefer to lend to state owned enterprises. Due to Vietnam’s population
being predominately rural, there is an urgent need to facilitate this development via a sustainable
socioeconomic approach.
Areas of significant need for developing small and medium agricultural enterprises are:
1. Marketing and trade development
•
Training on understanding supply/value chains:- They need to understand all the
participants and the roles they play in a supply/value chain (domestic and export)
Training on how to develop and establish a supply/value chains:- Understand the
supply/value chain development process, then build their own supply/value chain to create
improved value for all the chain members.
•
•
Market analysis and development:- Understand their market; segment their market; adjust
their product to their target market segment; develop new products.
2. Technology areas including plant and equipment
•
•
•
•
Information on new technologies
Implementation on new technologies
Access to new technological equipment to create added value
Efficiencies in use of equipment (reduction in idle time)
3. Business development
•
Establishment of associations:- Codes of conduct, rules and membership etc.
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CARD Project 050/04 VIE Improvement of Vietnamese fruit through improved post-harvest and supply chain management
•
•
Development of the business model:- Setting up the business; Structuring the business:-
Business plan, including marketing plan and financial plan etc.
Training and development of entrepreneurial skills
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Farmers who still use the traditional supply/value chain system receive a net return of about 6,514 VND
(A$0.45) per kg of fruit. Farmers who implemented new GAP systems and develop new markets
achieve net returns of about 15,423 VND (A$1.07) per kg of fruit. Farmers who joined a cooperative
and implemented GAP and best practice, plus develop new markets achieve net returns of about
21,793 VND (A$1.51) per kg of fruit. They receive a 3 fold increase by being in a cooperative if they
implementing GAP systems including best practice pre- and post- harvest systems and developing new
marketing supply/value chains to HCMC as part of the cooperative. By being a cooperative will
substantially reduce the costs of implementing GAP systems and developing new markets in HCMC.
These new GAP and quality assurance systems are based on:-
•
New harvesting and handling methods, using lined baskets, lowering fruit from trees, no
throwing or dropping or hand picking of fruit, clippers with bags used to harvest fruit, cutting fruit
with long stalks, clipping fruit stalks short and allowing fruit stems to suberise eliminating sap
burn by stopping sap dripping onto fruit
•
•
Quality assurance manuals develop showing maturity indicators, fruit grade, size grades, and
allowable blemishes and adhering to these standards
Post harvest techniques such as, sanitisation, hot water dipping to eliminate disease incidence,
grading and packaging tables
•
•
•
Packing of fruit into fibreboard boxes to eliminate fruit bruising and contaminates and damage
Placing fruit into cool rooms and using ripening rooms
Employment of trained grades and packers to ensure quality in the packing shed a the village
level
Comparison of mango to rice farming in the Mekong Delta indicates that horticultural crops provide
significantly higher returns. These returns are achieved by using new GAP systems and per- and post-
harvest best practice methods with access to new high value domestic markets in the major cities of
Vietnam.
For example:- rice farmers in the Mekong Delta grown on average two rice crops per year. The average
yield is about 4.8 tonnes per hectare with a net income of 3,652 VND per kg of rice (Berg 2002, pp.100
and 102). Therefore, farmers of Cat Hoa Loc Mango receive a seven fold increase in net returns
compared to rice farmers in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam.
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CARD Project 050/04 VIE Improvement of Vietnamese fruit through improved post-harvest and supply chain management
BACKGROUND
In 2003, Vietnam had about 670 000 hectares of fruit production, with an output of about 5.7 million
tonnes. Approximately 85% of rural households grow at least one fruit crop, and 85% of fruit and
vegetables produced are consumed domestically.
The Vietnamese Government set a target of achieving US$1billion dollars in fruit and vegetable exports
by the year 2010, and Vice Minister Bui Ba Bong has concluded that there are 11 fruits that have export
potential. Of the 11 fruits listed, two of these fruits (mango and pomelo) are being used as test cases by
this CARD Project. However in 2002 there was a significant drop in Vietnam’s exports by about 30%,
revealing a need for an improvement in the competitiveness in the supply chains operating in Vietnam
(VCNI, USAID Report 2003).
Vietnam’s fruit industry is influenced by wider, global trends. Vietnam competes in the local region
against Thailand and China for export markets (Ford et al., (2003). It is having difficulty competing with
Thailand, suggesting that the horticultural industries require substantial development in order to be
globally competitive. It is also difficult to compete with China and Thailand in the Vietnamese domestic
market. For example, according to the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, in 2008,
domestically grown oranges in the northern province of Ha Giang were in surplus, with 8 000 tonnes
unsold. Domestic orange prices plummeted and large quantities, of oranges were imported from China
due to better appearance and lower price. Surpluses also occurred for pineapple in Ninh Binh Province,
custard apples in Lang Song Province and lychee in Bac Giang Province (Viet Nam News, 2009).
Vietnam is experiencing fierce competition due to China and Thailand having signed a Free Trade
Agreement which cut tariffs to zero for 188 fruit and vegetables and China’s accession into the WTO
and implementation of tougher quarantine requirements has severely affected the export of fruit and
vegetables from Vietnam to China.
Ford et al., (2003) analysed the competitiveness of fruit industries of Vietnam and identified poor and
unstable product quality, no quality standards, poor post-harvest technologies and pre-harvest
practices, lack of group or cooperative marketing structures and little information about supply, prices
and customer needs as serious constraints to the development of fruit and vegetable industries in
Vietnam.
An Australian Government AusAID Collaboration for Agricultural and Rural Development (CARD)
Program project was developed in 2005 to addresses the serious constraints through identifying key
Vietnamese stakeholders from both the government and industry sectors. It will then engage and
empower them by focusing on the total supply chain network, and identifying where benefits are to be
gained. The project will fill capacity gaps and reduce major weaknesses in post-harvest technology,
product quality and consistency, cluster organisation and supply chain management and planning.
Under this CARD Project, two types of fruit were selected to act as case studies, these are mango and
pomelo. Mango was selected because it is an important fruit crop with 33 000 hectares in the Mekong
River Delta, and 9 200 hectares in Khanh Hoa central coastal province and there is 9 000 hectares of
pomelo in the Mekong River Delta. Vietnamese farmers growing these crops within these regions were
forming farmer’s groups or enterprises to improve their income. This CARD project has assisted these
groups/enterprises to improve their post harvest and supply chain knowledge and demonstrated new
and improved techniques.
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CARD Project 050/04 VIE Improvement of Vietnamese fruit through improved post-harvest and supply chain management
The objectives of the CARD project 050/04 VIE “Improvement of export and domestic markets for
Vietnamese fruit through improved post-harvest and supply chain management” are:
•
•
•
•
Improve pre-harvest technologies to produce high quality mango (integrated pest management,
integrated crop management, fruit fly control, maturity indices, reduced pesticide residues,
better environmental and human health etc)
Improve mango and pomelo post-harvest technologies (e.g. cool chain management,
packaging, post-harvest dipping, ethylene ripening, waxing, washing and wetting agents, quality
assurance)
Improve quality standards and quality assurance programs for mango and pomelo. The
approach and methodologies developed for these crops through this project will be applied to
other fruits and vegetables.
Mapping of current supply chains to domestic and selected export markets (Peoples Republic of
China and Europe), with particular emphasis on determining consumer preferences and needs,
and feeding results back to farmers.
•
•
Assistance in the formation and management of small-scale marketing clusters.
Greater understanding and possible improvements of the supply chain by Vietnamese fruit
industries.
OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY
As part of the CARD Project, Milestone 9, the project has to report on the improved supply chains
operational for selected fruits mango and pomelo. The deliverables for Milestone 9 are:
•
Documentation of improved quality, quantity and value obtained by cluster groups, including
documentation of reduction in post-harvest losses.
•
Analysis of socioeconomic benefits and sustainability of project outcomes, including revenue
streams, use of appropriate packaging and village employment
STUDY TEAM
Australian team members and institutions were:-
•
Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (DPI&F)
o Mr. Robert Nissen
•
University of Queensland (UQ)
o Dr. Marlo Rankin
o Dr. Iean Russell (Dr Russell stood in for Dr. Rankin due to Dr. Rankin being
unavailable)
Vietnamese team members and institutions were:-
•
Southern Sub-institute of Agricultural Engineering and Post-Harvest Technology (SIAEP)
o Mr. Nguyen Duy Duc
o Mr. Vu Cong Khanh
o Ms. San Tram Anh
o Mrs. Tran Thi Kin Oanh
o Mr. Nguyen The Binh
o Mrs. Tran Thi Ngoc Diep
•
Southern Fruit Research Institute (SOFRI)
o Dr. Nguyen Minh Chau
o Mr. Doan Huu Tien
o Mr. Ta Minh Tuan
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METHODOLOGY
Several methods were used to collect baseline data on mango and pomelo supply chains operating in
the Mekong River Delta of Vietnam. Relevant data and information was collected from the internet and
reports produced by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD), The Government
Statistics Office (GSO) of Vietnam, and provincial government offices in the Mekong River Delta,
Vietnam. Further information was obtained from the internet and published reports and databases of
the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations and World Bank, World Bank,
United Nations Family Planning Association (UNFPA, Population Reference Bureau and U.S.
Department of State).
Investigation into the mango and pomelo supply chains operating in the Mekong delta of Vietnam were
undertaken to establish how effectively these chains were operating. Survey sheets and process
analyses were developed and tested by Vietnamese project staff. This was part of the training
conducted by the Australian collaborators for the CARD Project 050/04VIE. Each supply chain was
segmented into the various supply chain participant groups; consumers, wholesalers, collectors and
farmers. A full investigation was carried out via interviews and surveys with the consumers,
wholesalers, collectors and farmers along the mango and pomelo supply chains operating in the Cai Be
District and Tien Giang Province, Bin Minh District and Vinh Long Province, Dong Thap Province, and
Ben Tre Province and Ho Chi Minh City in Vietnam in July 2005 to May in 2006.
Stratified random sampling and random sampling techniques were used to collect mango and pomelo
survey data. For the mango supply chains, interviews were conducted on a 100 consumers, 560
retailers, including 30 supermarkets, 46 high class shops, 397 retailer markets and 87 push cart and
sidewalk shop vendors. Retailers were segmented into four groups, based on store classification type
list. These classifications are:
•
•
•
•
Supermarkets are more than 250 m2 in size and selling both consumer goods and fruit and
vegetable
High class fruit shops are retailers specialising in selling high quality fruit and vegetable
only
Retail markets are fruit and vegetable retailers selling fruit and vegetable in a general
market (traditional as well as wet markets retailers)
Push cart, sidewalk shops and travelling street vendors
Further investigations on mango sales during both the main mango season and off season were
undertaken. A total of 98 retailers were interviewed during the main mango season and a further 100
retailers interviewed during the off season.
A total of 8 wholesalers from the city of Cai Be, Tien Giang Province were interviewed and a further 10
collectors were interviewed in the Vinh Kim and Cai Be Districts. Interviews of 299 wholesalers were
conducted, including the wholesale markets in Ho Chi Minh City, Ton That Thuyet floating markets
(which no longer exist), Cho Lon, Thu Duc as well as wholesale markets in the production areas of Binh
Thuan, Bin Duong, Ben Tre, Tien Giang and Don Thap. A further survey of wholesalers was also
carried out in 2006 and an investigation of HCMC Fruit and Vegetable Central Markets was undertaken
on the 29th of April 2006.
For pomelo supply chains, a total of 64 farmers were interviewed within Cam Son district, with 34 new
mango farmers and 30 established mango farmers. In Hoa Hung district, 24 surveys were conducted
with established farmers. All farmers interviewed produce fruit for market in January to March period. A
further 100 farmers were interviewed while they attended mango training courses at the Agricultural
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CARD Project 050/04 VIE Improvement of Vietnamese fruit through improved post-harvest and supply chain management
Extension Centre. Further information was obtained via interviews with 3 grower cooperatives/groups in
November 2005 and April 2006.
Stratified random sampling and random sampling techniques were used to collect pomelo survey data.
Interviews were conducted with:
•
•
•
•
20 Nam Roi pomelo farmers at Binh Minh District and Vinh Long Province
9 Nam Roi pomelo traders at Binh Minh District and Vinh Long Province
4 Nam Roi pomelo wholesalers at Cai Be District, Tien Giang Province
1 Nam Roi pomelo exporting & processing Co. at Binh Minh District and Vinh Long Province.
Further interviews and inspections were carried out during each CARD Project training visit to the My
Hoa Nam Roi Pomelo Cooperative and the Cat Hoa Loc Mango Cooperative.
Results and reports on surveys are presented in:
•
Report on Investigations into mango supply chains in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam
2005-2007
•
•
Investigations in the pomelo supply chains in the Mekong delta in Vietnam
and this report below.
To demonstrate the benefit of developing new supply chians, experiments were set up for both mango
and pomelo. Results of these experiments are published in the two reports:
•
Fruit quality comparisons of three Cat Hoa Loc Mango supply chains in the Mekong River Delta
of southern Vietnam
•
Maintaining fruit quality and increasing shelf life of Nam Roi Pomelo supply chain in the Mekong
River Delta of southern Vietnam
This report is split into two sections. Section one provides the results of the socioeconomic status of
Vietnam and the other section provides the results of the economic analyses of the Cat Ho Loc mango
supply chains.
SECTION 1 RESULTS:- SOCIOECONOMIC
COMPONENTS OF VIETNAM
POPULATION DEMOGRAPHICS
DEMOGRAPHICS OF VIETNAM
A census carried out in 2007 indicated the population at about 85.15 million people. Estimates in July
2008 place Vietnam’s population at about 86.2 million people. Vietnam’s population growth rate of
1.35% per year has slowed from 3.5% in the 1980’s -1990’s and has maintained a population growth
rate from 2000 onwards. About 25.6% of the population are aged 0-14 years, 68.6% 15-64 years, and
5.8% over 65 years. The median age is 26.9 years, males 25.8 years and female 28 years (PBF 2009,
p.; GSO 2008, pp. 21-22; CIA World Factbook 2008, p.1). Of the 54 ethnic groups making up Vietnam’s
population the majority are Kinh. See Table 2 below for the percentage of the major ethnic groups in
Vietnam.
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Table 2. Ethnic Groups of Vietnam for Year 2003.
Ethnic Groups
Percentage
Kinh (Vietnamese descendents)
85.73%
1.97%
1.70%
1.52%
1.37%
1.13%
1.13%
1.11%
Tay
Thai
Muong
Khmer
Chinese
Nung
Hmong
(Source: U.S. Department of State 2009, p.1).
There has been a significant increase in life expectancy and aging population and a decrease in fertility
in Vietnam (see Figures 1 and 2, population pyramids 1999 and 2007). This data suggests, Vietnam’s
population will become more mature and fertility rates are decreasing.
Figure 1. Population pyramid, Vietnam 1st
April 1999.
Figure 2. Population pyramid, Vietnam 1st April
2007.
DEMOGRAPHICS IN THE MAJOR CITIES OF VIETNAM
There are two major cities in Vietnam. The capital, Hanoi is in the north of Vietnam and Ho Chi Minh
City (HCMC) in the south. Hanoi has about 6.232 million people after being officially expanded to
include Ha Tay Province and parts of Hoa Binh Province. Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) has about 6.602
million people, with Haiphong having 1.711 million people. The forth largest city is in the Mekong River
Delta, Can Tho, having a population of about 1.154 million people (GSO, 2008, pp. 22-24; GSO (b),
2007; U.S. Department of State 2009, p.1). HCMC is Vietnam’s largest urban agglomeration covering
over 2095 sq. km. In recent years, urbanisation has been taking place at a significant rate. The
economic growth rate of HCMC has been 11% per year for the past decade and the annual population
growth rate is 3.5% per year (GSO (a), 2007). The implementation of “Do Moi” in 1984 has helped to
reduced the number of poor households in Vietnam and helped Vietnam transform from a centralised
economy to a market economy (Nguyen, N. H., 2007).
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DEMOGRAPHICS IN THE TWO MAJOR REGIONS OF VIETNAM
Vietnam’s population is concentrated in these two major river deltas, the Red River and Mekong River
Deltas. About 42.3% of the Vietnam’s population live in these deltas, with 21.6% of population living in
the Red River Delta and 20.7% or 17.3 million people live in the Mekong River Delta. The average
population density of Vietnam is about 240 people per sq. km, and the Mekong River Delta density is
435 people per square kilometre. The Red River and Mekong River Deltas are 17% of the total land
area of Vietnam (GSO, 2008, pp. 24-25; Nguyen, N. H., 2007).
In 2006, the average number of household members was 4.2 persons. The average number of persons
per household was higher in rural areas than urban areas. Poor households, have an average of 4.6
persons, 1.2 times larger than the richest households (GSO, 2006, p. 23). Approximately 13 million
people are below the poverty line based on the new Vietnamese Government poverty line of (200
thousand VND for the rural area and 2,600 thousand VND for urban area) with approximately 28 million
live just above the official poverty line (GSO, 2006, p.23; Oxfam, 2008, p.11).
Population growth rates in The Mekong River Delta were steady at 1.8-2% during the 1990s, but the
population growth rate has now increased to be above 2%. About 85% of the Mekong River Delta
population live on agricultural practices and the region produces 90% of the rice exports and 60% of
Vietnam’s total export turnover from fishery products (Nguyen, N. H., 2007).
In 2004, the head of the household in the urban areas was 61% male and 39% female, and 61.4% male
and 36.6% female in 2006. Comparing this to the rural areas in 2004 was 78.8% male and 21.2%
female, in 2006, 79.5% male and 20.6% female. For the Mekong River Delta household heads in 2004
were 73.6% male and 26.5% female, and 74.1% male and 25.9% female in 2006 (GSO, 2006, p.54).
Whilst formal equality is established in the constitution and policies of Vietnamese Government,
discrimination against women continues to exist in Vietnam and many women encounter substantial
legal and social obstacles. Government Decree 163 (1998) institutionalised the status of the VWU, to
which more than 50% of women belong (Bourke-Martignoni, 2001, pp. 10-11) but many women still
encounter substantial discrimination especially in rural areas.
DEMOGRAPHICS AND RURAL WOMEN
In agricultural, forestry and fishery production, women participate in farming with production based on
village/family units with all family members contributing to pre-harvest management. Women are
involved in field operations such as harvesting operations. In Vietnam, women account for the majority
in rural population (about 52%) and rural workforce (52-54%). Thus women make great contribution to
rural economic growth. Being aware of women’s role, rural socioeconomic policies formulated by the
government have significantly increased women’s role in response to their real abilities and potentials.
Nowadays, women are considered as a significant factor contributing to rural economic development
through increasing jobs, facilitating their access to credit, education and science and technology
advances in production. In addition, salaries for women have increased to the same level as men's
salaries, but more needs to be done in this area. Nowadays, there are more and more women taking
important positions in political parties and government in Vietnam and this trend will continue.
DEMOGRAPHICS OF CARD PROJECT TRAINERS, TRAINEES AND WORKSHOP
ATTENDEES AND INFORMATION OBTAINED ON THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE
VIETNAMESE FARMING SOCIETY
This CARD project was aware of the need to incorporate, encourage and support the role of women as
project and supply chain participants in the design and implementation of the project. At the farmer
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level, there have been difficulties in past projects to encourage women to join as members of
cooperatives, with very few represented both as general members, and even less at a management
level.
This is an ongoing challenge facing cooperative development in general, the patriarch of the households
will join as members of the cooperative and the female member of the household will only attend
meetings if her male partner is unable. However, it has been recognised that women play a variety of
roles at all levels of both mango and pomelo supply chains and encouragement of women to be
involved in this project was undertaken through both SIAEP and SOFRI management.
CARD PROJECT TEAM
The Australian CARD Project Team consisted of three males and one female, whilst the teams from,
SOFRI were primarily made up of five males and four females, with the team from SIAEP primarily
consisting of six males and four females. The SOFRI team was lead by experienced scientist and
extensionist Dr Hong who is committed to the professional development of female staff. A number of
young female scientists from both institutes have been encouraged to take on key responsibilities as
part of the project. They have also been encouraged to identify, learn from and support the participation
of women at all levels of the supply chains. They have shown the capacity to understand complex
supply chain concepts and the sensitivity to recognise that building successful supply chains requires in-
depth understanding and mediation of complex power relationships. On more than 12 occasions,
delivery of training to Vietnamese mango and pomelo farmers was undertaken by theses female CARD
Project members.
Although the Australian project team has only one female member, her experience in working with both
farming communities and research institutes in Vietnam makes her contribution to understanding and
gender issues associated with project was particularly valuable. An in-depth understanding of cultural
norms and ability to work within these to encourage participation of women in a non-threatening manner
is considered critical to achieving sustainable and realistic project outcomes for women in Vietnamese
supply chains.
CARD PROJECT TRAINEES
Past experience has shown that at a farmer level, women are most likely to provide input and participate
in training when it is of a more informal nature and not overly time consuming. Small group meetings
held in members’ homes (outside of common meal times) where female family members have been
encouraged to participate have proven to be a successful technique in drawing out opinions and gaining
valuable insight into the role they play as multi-task managers both in the home and as part of the
agricultural production activities. Many farm visits were made by the CARD Project staff for information
gathering and as well as conducting informal training sessions with local farmers. During these visits
the household head usually attended but after some time the women of the local households did join in
the informal workshops and information gathering sessions. This project found that:-
bookkeeping is often a role taken on by women at a farm level and many have a good
understanding of fluctuating input prices, market prices and impact on overall farm profitability.
in many instances, the women of the house hold had higher levels of education and shared
equally in the decision making with their husbands
women performed many roles in the household, undertaking the cooking, caring for household
members, conducting the everyday chores that keeping the household functioning as well as
being heavily involved in the field work, such as harvesting and post harvest activities and
selling of the fruit
This information obtained from the women is particularly valuable when attempting to analyse existing
supply chains in terms of resource flows.
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This project found that women are heavily involved in the post-harvest marketing and sale of mango
and pomelo fruit with six in every seven people a women. Many husbands, when being interviewed by
the CARD Project team on supply chain matters, had to refer to their wives to obtain answers for the
interviewers. Women often represent the majority, 85% of collectors, wholesalers, traders and retailers
in both local and HCMC markets are women. Valuable market information and insights were gained
through this visit to collectors, wholesalers and retailers and was incorporated into the analysis of
existing supply chains.
WORKSHOPS THIS CARD PROJECT CONDUCTED
A series of ten major workshops were conducted by this CARD Project. Each workshop was broken
down into a series of smaller workshops to enable participants to understand concepts and participate
in adult action learning processes. Workshops were held across the Mekong River Delta in Tien Giang,
Vinh Long, Dong Thap Province, at My Tho, Cai Be, Vinh Long, and South Central Cost (Khanh Hoa
Province) in Vietnam with about 25% women as attendees. These workshops were:-
•
•
Introduction to Value Supply Chains
Principles of supply chains, developing supply chains, supply chain analysis, developing
strategic plans and action plans
•
•
Developing new improved horticultural supply chains
Mango physiology and post harvest technology, mango harvesting and field handling and
socioeconomic analysis and development
•
•
•
•
•
Supply chain management of fresh product quality and food safety
Marketing and focus Groups Training
Designing Training Workshops for mango and pomelo growers in Vietnam
Socioeconomic analysis of mango and pomelo supply chains in Vietnam
Integrated Pest and Disease Management (IPDM) system for Mango and Pomelo
DEPENDENCY RATES
The total dependency ratio indicates the relationship of age, fertility and mortality levels with the labour
force. The total dependency ratio of Vietnam has significantly decreased from 89 dependents below 15
and over 60 per 100 working persons to 54 in 2007 (GSO, 2008, p. 25). The reduction in child
dependency could be attributed to family planning programs implemented in Vietnam. See Table 2
Dependency ratio in the period 1979-2007 below.
Table 2. Vietnams Dependency Ratio in the period 1979-2007.
Descriptors
Census
1979
84
Census
1989
73
Census
1999
56
Census
2007
39
Child dependency ratio (0-14)
Old dependency ratio (60+
14
13
14
15
Total dependency ratio
(GSO, 2008)
98
86
70
54
FERTILITY RATES
Vietnam has a lower fertility rate, (2.07 children per women) than most Asian countries, (2.3 children per
women). Fertility rates for the Mekong River Delta, (1.74 children per woman), are lower than the
replacement fertility rate. Infant mortality rate (IMR) for Vietnam is 16 per thousand and crude death
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rate (CRD) is 5.3 per thousand, but in the Mekong River Delta is the IRM is 11 per thousand (GSO,
2008, p. 26-28).
MORTALITY RATES
In Vietnam about 85.4 % of deaths were due to disease, 8% from accidents and 6.6% from other
reasons. Traffic accident deaths are 5 times higher than from work accidents (4.7% vs. 1%). Traffic
accidents deaths in both urban and rural are 2 times higher for males than females, 10.5% vs. 4.5%
respectively (GSO, 2008, p. 35).
How many of these deaths and a decrease infertility is due to farming practices, and the use of
agricultural products, e.g. chemicals?
HEALTH AND HEALTH CARE
In the VHLSS 2006, 49% of respondents indicated they had been sick in the last 12 months with 35%
having to be medically treated. As normally expected, rich households had the highest number of
treatments. However, rural people had less opportunity to receive medical examination and treatment in
state hospitals than urban people. Only 74% of rural people sought medical treatment compared to
89% in urban areas.
Only 1/3 of health centres applied sterilising activities with more than 60% of commune health centres
having difficulties in sterilising and 45% lacking the necessary equipment (GSO, 2006). In 2006, 9,013
communes with health stations accounting for 99.3% of the communes in Vietnam and 36.9% had
private health care establishments with the highest being in the Mekong River Delta (73.5%), but village
in care health in the Mekong Delta is the lowest at 73%.6 (GSO, 2007, pp. 52-53).
Only 50% of the people receiving medical treatment had medical insurance with a rate of 71% in the
poor households having insurance and only 61% in rich households. In the Mekong Rive Delta
diarrhoea has now been reduced but dengue fever still remains a significant problem. During the
flooding season in 2000, diarrhoea, amoebic dysentery, typhoid, dengue fever increased suddenly.
More than half of female population suffered gynaecological disease (MARD/UNDP, 2006). The
Government of Vietnam put a priority in supporting the healthcare system in Mekong River Delta.
People can access health facilities, take their children to be vaccinated and health care service often
pay them a visit at their homes, but only 22% of poor household in Mekong River Delta have at least
one person with health insurance cards compared to the average 29% of poor households for the whole
country (UNDP/AUSAID, 2004). Rainfall events such as cyclones/typhoons, rain depressions and
storms often limit many rural households in the Mekong Delta Region from accessing medical help, due
to significant flooding.
SMOKING
The amount of the aged population (15 years and above) who smoked was 19.5%. Mostly men smoked
and with about 1% of women smoking. The Mekong River Delta had the highest smoking rate
compared to the Red River Delta which had the lowest rate. Most people started to smoke form the age
of 17 to 20 GSO, 2006). The total cost of inpatient health care caused by smoking in Vietnam reached
at least 1 161 829 million Vietnamese dollars ($VN) (or $US77.5 million) in 2005. This represents about
0.22% of Vietnam gross domestic product (GDP) and 4.3% of total healthcare expenditure.
It is well known that smoking causes significant health problems, but further complications arise when
working with agricultural products. When handling or working with agricultural chemicals risks are:
•
•
fire and explosion when handling chemicals
self contamination
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o inhaling chemicals fumes
o ingestion of chemicals by handling chemicals and cigarettes without protective measures
Furthermore, the risk to maintaining a quality assurance program is extreme, due to the product being
contaminated via
•
•
•
discarded butts, which can carry diseases and contaminates
ash from burnt tobacco contaminating the product
and possibility of fruit to ripening prematurely due to increased ethylene levels
Therefore, smoking is banned when harvesting and packing fruit in the field, handling chemicals and
from packing sheds, ripening rooms and cool rooms and storage rooms. Control of smoking habits of
the rural poor, employed in packing houses and development of quality assurance program and
development of field/orchard best practice methods for Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) will require a
substantial education program in The Mekong Delta of Vietnam.
EDUCATION
Vietnamese households spend on average 1.211 million VND per household member for schooling, a
47% increase when compare to the rates in 2004. About 92% of household members went to public
schools. About 43% of all household members attend extra classes, with 68% being held at schools
and 28% at teacher’s houses (GSO, 2006 pp. 24-25). School fees, expenditure for extra classes and
other educational expenditure accounted for large proportion of this educational expenditure for
household members. Education expenditure (2.096 million VND per person) increased by 2.3 times in
urban areas compared to rural areas. The rate of pupils with good educational grades was 2.5 times
higher in urban areas than rural areas and 5 times greater in rich households compared to poor
households (GSO, 2006. pp. 24-25). Difficulties encountered at schools and varied from rural to urban
and between different income groups. These difficulties were:
•
•
•
Lack of equipment
Quality of school buildings
Quality of teachers
In many poor rural households children have to leave school to look for work to support their family, but
rural education has been significantly improved since 1944 and 2001 when surveys were last
conducted. In 2006 88.3% of communes had kindergarten, 99.3% had primary schools and 90.8%
lower secondary schools, with 10.8% having upper secondary schools. Very low percentage of
nurseries and kindergartens for some provinces still exist and these are Cao Bang, Lai Chau, Dak
Nong, Tien Giang, Kien Giang and Ca Mau.
Vietnam’s, ratio in terms of primary education per commune is 1.44 and 2.14 in the Mekong River Delta.
The building of permanent and semi-permanent schools is 29.8% and 63% respectively. At different
schooling levels permanent and semi permanent schools are shown in Table 3 below.
Table 3. Types of schools and levels in Vietnam in 2006.
School Levels
Nurseries and kindergartens
Primary
Permanent Schools
52.2%
Semi-Permanent Schools
46.3%
63.7
30.8%
Lowe secondary
Upper secondary
44.4%
87.2%
51.5%
11.7%
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In the Mekon River Delta the technical professional and political theory qualification of key commune
officers obtained at a secondary vocational level or higher was 87.6% compared to the lowest in the
North West at 67.6% (GSO, 2007). However there are still very wide gaps in key commune officer’s
qualifications and working conditions in different provinces in Vietnam. Offices connects by telephone
line is 76.5% and computers connected to the internet is 1.3% (GSO (a), 2007).
The Law on Education Article 9 in 1998, provides women and girls shall have equal access to
educational opportunities. Females are currently attending primary and secondary schools in numbers
almost equivalent to those of boys, but there is still a strong gender disparity in the number of women
undertaking tertiary education (Bourke-Martignoni, 2001, pp. 11-12).
Today’s farmers need to be well educated, because they must implement quality assurance programs.
All quality assurance programs have product traceability as one of their core elements. Hence their
ability to keep records of fertiliser and chemical applications, read chemical labels and calculate
chemical application rates to ensure the product meets food safety standards is at the heart of these
quality assurance programs. Farmers who are capable of ensuring product safety for consumers is
being demanded by today’s retailers.
The Mekong Delta Economic Cooperation stated that the Mekong Delta provides 90% of rice exports,
70% of fruit production and 60% of aquatic products exported from Vietnam. Therefore, whenever
people mention to the Mekong Delta, they usually mention its advantages. However, people consider
the Mekong Delta region as a "rich food but the poor knowledge" region, a “depression” of education
and training. This is because of its low intellectual standard compared with the whole country. For
example, the number of regional students studying in the vocational schools is at the lowest rate and
regional agricultural production is unsustainable and poverty rate will increase if this continues (MDEC,
2008, p.1).
EDUCATION LEVELS AND EFFECTS ON CARD PROJECT
Whilst forming small farmers into groups has creating greater economies of scale and reduced the
number of participants in the supply/value chain, the benefits to individual farmers in the group appear
to be tightly linked to education levels. Farmers with higher education levels appear better to
understand problems and apply new technology to solve those problems. Other less educated farmers
appear reluctant to change and favour traditional methods.
Due to the different education levels of the farmers in The Mekong Delta, this CARD Project used adult
training methodologies such as participatory action learning (PAL) methods and farmer training farmer
(FTF). This was achieved through workshops and in-field practical learning classes (in-field farmer
schools). Using these methods enabled farmers with higher levels of education to help farmers with
lower levels of education. This method does have some small disadvantages:- the higher educated,
more progressive farmers cannot move forward as quickly as they would like, because the higher
educated farmers are helping the lower educated farmers understand ides and concepts. This method
enables the lower educated farmers to move forward at a faster pace than they would otherwise do so.
This method also moves the whole group forward at a faster pace.
To overcome the higher educated farmers being slowed down, training manuals and information,
included more complex information which these higher educated farmers could understand and use.
The information provided also had to have a clear and logical sequence to build knowledge, be easily
understood and have learning outcomes, catering for the lowest educated farmer to the higher educated
farmer.
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To build knowledge, capacity and educate trainers, this CARD project also used train the trainer (TT)
methodologies. The information provided to these trainers was at a higher level than provided to the
farmers. Therefore reference manuals were also provided to the trainers. This approach enabled the
education levels of both the trainers and farmers to be increased, achieving impacts and changes in
practices at the trainer and farmer levels.
The training followed a logical sequence from understanding what supply/value chains are, providing
technical inputs which will have the greatest impact on the supply/value chain:-
Understanding supply/value chains training for trainers and farmers
•
•
•
•
•
Introduction to value supply/value chains
Principles of supply/value chains
Analysis of supply/value chains
Developing strategic plans and action plans for supply/value chains
Developing new improved horticultural supply/value chains
Technical input training for trainers and farmers
•
Mango physiology and post harvest technology, mango harvesting and field handling and
socioeconomic analysis and development
•
•
Supply/value chain management of fresh product quality and food safety
Integrated Pest and Disease Management (IPDM) system for Mango and Pomelo
Training for the trainers
•
•
•
Marketing and focus groups training
Designing training workshops for mango and pomelo growers in Vietnam
Socioeconomic analysis of mango and pomelo supply chains in Vietnam
During this CARD Project we found that many Vietnamese farmers have insufficient knowledge and
information on what chemical to apply for a pest or disease and what is the most economical way to
apply the chemical? Also it has been observed that many farmers and labours do not take adequate
protection from pesticides.
There is a need to educate farmers in the correct handling of pesticides and fungicides and the possible
risks to their health if not handled correctly. Many farmers are not aware of chemical overuse and the
problems of pest and disease resistance that can be created by chemical overuse.
Most farmers are aware of consumer suspicions of chemicals used to grown fruit and vegetables and
the move by consumers towards a clean green product and organic grown products.
Therefore, this CARD project provided training to improve farmer GAP practices and workshops on
IPM/IDM for mango and pomelo were held in October 2007.
POST AND COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
In Vietnam, approximately 17.7% of all communes across the country have access to the internet at the
post-culture house. The South East of the Vietnam has the highest rate with 49.1% followed by the
Mekong River Delta at 43.6% with the lowest in the North West at 2.9%. The number of households
with telephone (fixed or mobile) has reached 2.924 million. This equates to every 4.7 households
having a telephone. About 75.4% of communes in Vietnam have local radio systems linked to villages,
with 9.7% of communes having libraries (GSO (a), 2007).
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AGRICULTURAL NETWORKS
For veterinary networks in provinces and localities, the agricultural, forestry and fishery extension
systems in the communes and villages show there are 57 not yet in place or, if in place are not
sufficient. The are in Hai Duong, Da Nang, Quang Tri, Quang Ngai, Daklak, Binh Duong, Ben Tre and
Soc Trang Provinces (GSO (a), 2007).
BANKING
MARKETPLACE
AND
AGRO-FORESTRY
PROCESSING FACILITIES.
BANKING
The commercial bank and people credit fund systems has been established in rural areas to allow
people access to loans and credit as an investment for production and business activities. In 2006,
about 12.1% of the total number of communes across Vietnam had bank branches and 10.1% had
peoples credit funds established. Under the Vietnamese Government National Target Program on
poverty reduction and job creation, Program 135, has developed helped a number of communes with
banks/bank branches or people’s credit funds, but this is still very low at 4.3% and 2.4% respectively
(GSO (a), 2007).
In late 2007, the abundance of capital inflows created strong pressure for the dong to appreciate,
affecting export competitiveness. Resisting that pressure meant injecting massive amounts of liquidity
into the economy. The result was a boom in banking credit, rising inflation, and an asset price bubble.
In late 2008 and early 2009, export growth is bound to slow, capital inflows will decline, and the
investment rate will fall. As economic activity slows and jobs are lost, real income growth will weaken,
and the poor are likely to suffer the most.
SOCIAL POLICIES IN RURAL AREAS
In Vietnam, under Program 135, a number of specific projects have been initiated on:
•
credit project for poor households to access to credits for developing their production and
business activities;
•
instructing poor people on the way of doing business, and providing agricultural, forestry and
fishery extension services;
•
•
•
•
developing poverty reduction models in special areas;
constructing infrastructure in poor communes;
support to production and livelihood improvement in poor communes;
training and capacity strengthening for staff involved in poverty reduction activities and staff in
poor communes;
•
providing loans to small scale projects for creating jobs through the National Fund for
Employment Support;
•
•
supporting education in mountainous areas, ethnic minority areas and disadvantaged areas;
strengthening physical facilities in schools.
Rural markets play a very important role in Vietnam’s economy. These markets are commodity based
and promote the exchange of goods amongst regions with in the locality or province. In Vietnam, about
58% of the countries communes have market places, with the Mekong River Delta having 72.6% market
places. These have been developed under Vietnamese government policies to facilitate the sale of
produce by farmers in Vietnam.
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LABOUR
Employment is the critical factor affecting living standards in Vietnam. While the economically active
population (15 to 60 for men and 55 for women) tended to increase in recent years there was decrease
in the 15-19 age groups (GSO, 2006). This is possibly due to more students staying at school.
However, poor households still had higher rates of economically active persons in this age group, due to
the fact that they had less schooling and rural area were significantly larger than urban areas. This is
basically due to the fact they have to start work early in life.
A change in the occupation structure in Vietnam is now occurring with more non-agricultural, forestry
and fishery occupations reaching 28.4% of the population in 2006. The average weekly hours worked
was 33 hours one hour more than in 2004. Under-employment in rural areas is still a major factor with
13 less work-hours per week than in urban areas. The average work-hours for the rich households was
15 hours more than poor households and 15 hours longer than work-hours in 2004 (GSO, 2006).
These differences in work-hours have widened the gap between the rich and poor. Households of the
rural and poor areas had more children but fewer labourers than households of urban and rich areas.
Vietnam’s industrialization is characterized by an increasing a number of enterprises around cities, and
the creation of dynamic economic zones in different parts of the country. In contrast, rural areas have
been less dynamic and now are confronting the imbalance between human resources and land as a
consequence of high population growth in past decades. Farmers in rural areas are now unemployed
or underemployed, and the living standards of these people are quite low.
In Vietnam, a household is the major production unit in agricultural, forestry and fishery production.
Production from each household in terms of land or employee is not large when compared to other semi
developed countries. The average of one agricultural, forestry and fishery unit (household) uses about
2.3 employees, and each household has 2.3 employees. The average number of employees used by
an agricultural, forestry or enterprise, cooperative or by a farm is respectively 122, 17.4 and 3.4
employees. Agricultural, forestry and fishery land used by an agriculture, forestry and fishery unit was
1.5 ha in 2006. This is an increased by 1.4% compared with that in 2001; of which, an enterprise would
use 1.727 ha, a cooperative – 6.2ha, a farm – 4.5ha and household – 0.9ha (GSO (a), 2007, pp. 71-72).
RURAL LABOUR FORCE
The total number of rural households in 2006 was 13.77 million, an increase of 0.7 million since 2001.
In 2006, 9.78million households were involved in agriculture, forestry and fishery decreased from 81%
to 71.1%, and the number of industry and service households increased from 5.8% to 10.2% and
construction households from 10.6% to 14.9%, see Figures 3 and 4 (GSO (a), 2007). With the fast
change in rural household structure, construction and services rural households are now 25% of the
total number of rural households in Vietnam. Only 4 regions in Vietnam are greater than 25% and these
are South East region 42.9%, Red River Delta 33.4%, South Central Coast 26.1% and The Mekong
River Delta 25.1% (GSO (a), 2007). With the world economic crisis occurring in 2008 and continuing
into 2009, loss of urban jobs will turn this trend around and there will possibly be a significant increase
in the number of people living in rural households returning to agriculture as a way of life.
The state encourages farm owners to expand their production scale, creating employment opportunities
for rural labours, recruiting labours from farm households and employing the underemployed, female
labourers and poor who have no land or who lack land for production. Farm owners have the right to
hire unlimited quantity of labour. Duration, amount of work, wages and forms of payment are agreed
between labourers and farm owners as set out by the legal frame work on labour.
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CARD Project 050/04 VIE Improvement of Vietnamese fruit through improved post-harvest and supply chain management
Farmers have to pay labourers an additional fee (equivalent to 15% of the agreed wages for social
insurance and 2%for health insurance); they have to equip labourers with safety clothing and take
responsibility for labourers should they face risk, accidents or sickness for the duration of the contract
(Circular No.23/LD-TBXH, 2000) (Man, P.S., 2006, pp.89-90).
Types of rural households in Vietnam in year 2006
Agricultural, forestry, fishery households
Industal, and construction households
Service households
Other households
4%
10%
15%
71%
Figure 3. Types of rural households in Vietnam in 2006.
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CARD Project 050/04 VIE Improvement of Vietnamese fruit through improved post-harvest and supply chain management
Types of rural households in Vietnam in 2001
Agricultural, forestry, fishery households
Industal, and construction households
Service households
Other households
3%
11%
6%
80%
Figure 4. Types of rural households in Vietnam in 2001.
(Source GSO (a), 2007)
While unemployment may be on the rise in Vietnam, women continue to perform the bulk of
unremunerated domestic and agricultural work. Rural women in Vietnam work an average of 12.5 hours
per day and single working women work an average of 16 hours per day. As a direct consequence of
long work hours, women in Vietnam tend to shoulder a double or triple role (work inside the home,
caring for children and work outside the home). They have very limited time available for relaxation,
education and training, social, cultural or recreational activities (Bourke-Martignoni, 2001, p.12).
ECONOMY
Global integration has been Vietnam’s ticket to prosperity. Linking domestic prices to international
markets has allowed Vietnamese farmers to get better returns for their products and emerge from
poverty. In Vietnam the poverty levels have decreased from about 58% in 1993 to about 18% in 2006
where 43 million people came out of poverty (World Bank, 2008, p.42). Opening Vietnam to Foreign
Direct Investment (FDI) inflows resulted in the creation of wage employment, making it possible for
Vietnam to absorb millions of entrants into its labour market. FDI has risen significantly since 1988.
Exports (Table 4) have been the main driver of economic growth, as domestic enterprises connected
increasingly to international markets. Opening the services sector to new entry brought competition into
activities previously dominated by large state-owned enterprises (SOEs) and state-owned commercial
banks (SOCBs), but this has resulted in substantial efficiency gains. Vietnam has been one of the
fastest growing economies in the world with a gross domestic product (GDP) annual growth of about 8%
from 1990 -1997 and 6.5% from 1998-2003 and 8% for the period 2004-2007 but has dropped in 2008
to 6.2% (GSO (c), 2007,p.71; U.S. Department of State, 2009. p. 6). The growth in GDP by sector has
been significant for Vietnam in recent years. In 2007, the global uncertainty in financial markets caused
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CARD Project 050/04 VIE Improvement of Vietnamese fruit through improved post-harvest and supply chain management
an increase in food prices, especially for rice. Also the price of oil has tripled since 2003 and price for
non oil commodities have doubled (World Bank (a), 2008 p.1) but Vietnam is a major exporter of food
products and could benefit from higher food prices, especially rice. Macroeconomic conditions have
now become increasingly difficult with growth forecasts lower than previously predicted by the World
Bank in 2008, see Table 4 (World Bank (a), 2008 p.1).
Table 4. World Bank (2008) and International Monetary Fund (IMF) 2008 International Economic
Environment.
2007
2008
2009
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth
(percent)
World
3.6
2.5
2.2
2.7
2.1
7.9
8.7
7.5
71.1
15.8
2.4 -2.8
1.1 -1.6
0.5 -1.4
1.3 -1.7
1.3 -1.7
6.7
7.3
4.0 -5.0
108.1
2.8 -3.2
1.4 -2.0
1.0 -2.0
1.5 -1.9
1.6 -2.0
6.6
7.4
5.0 -6.0
105.5
High income OECD
The United States
Euro zone
Japan
Emerging and developing economies
East Asia
World trade (percent change)
Oil price (US$/barrel)
Non-oil commodity prices (percent change)
10.0 – 12.0
-10.0 – 0
The population of Vietnam is predominately rural, about 73% of the population living in rural areas,
making 94% of all the poor people. The average Vietnamese household produces food worth 15 400
000 VND and consumes 10 200 000 VND each year. Approximately, 27% of poor and 18% of non-poor
households in the Mekong River Delta are net sellers of rice despite the Mekong River Delta being the
“rice bowl” of Vietnam. In the Mekong River Delta, 38% of poor and 50% non-poor households are net
sellers of food. Analysis by World Bank in 2007 showed that the generalisations above are not always
true. Urban households are net purchasers of food, buying 8.300 000 VND worth of food, but 12% and
27% of poor urban households are net seller of food compared this to rural households, where 46% of
rural households net food purchases. Despite improvement in overall welfare in Vietnam 51% of all
households are worse off.
ECONOMIC EFFECTS ON CARD PROJECT
During this CARD Project we found there is a significant need to develop small and medium agricultural
enterprises. In Vietnam, many farmers groups are trying to develop and establish small and medium
agricultural enterprises. These groups face many difficulties. One major hurdle is borrowing money
from banks to expand or extend their operations. Banks prefer to lend to state owned enterprises. Due
to Vietnam’s population being predominately rural there is an urgent need to facilitate this development
via a sustainable socioeconomic approach. Areas of significant need for developing small and medium
agricultural enterprises are:
4. Marketing and trade development
•
Training on understanding supply/value chains:- They need to understand all the
participants and the roles they play in a supply/value chain (domestic and export)
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CARD Project 050/04 VIE Improvement of Vietnamese fruit through improved post-harvest and supply chain management
•
•
Training on how to develop and establish a supply/value chains:- Understand the
supply/value chain development process, then build their own supply/value chain to create
improved value for all the chain members.
Market analysis and development:- Understand their market; segment their market; adjust
their product to their target market segment; develop new products.
5. Technology areas including plant and equipment
•
•
•
•
Information on new technologies
Implementation on new technologies
Access to new technological equipment to add value
Efficiencies in use of equipment (reduction in idle time)
6. Business development
•
•
Establishment of associations:- Codes of conduct, rules and membership etc.
Development of the business model:- Setting up the business; Structuring the business:-
Business plan, including marketing plan and financial plan etc.
Training and development of entrepreneurial skills
•
TAXES
The Vietnamese government does not collect land use fees for land that is allocated within the quota to
a household, individual and farm, as long as the land is used for agricultural, forestry and aquaculture
production. The Land law 2003 stipulates that the state may collect land fees for any land area in
excess of a quota and land leased by the state. Also farm owners are exempt from land use fees, land
lease fees and agricultural use taxes. This is where they use bare hillsides, fallow land or land located
in areas with no previous investment for agricultural, forestry and aquaculture production purposes
(Decision No.3CP 2000, Circular No.82/BTC, 2000). Farms and farmers are also considered by the
State to be exempt from agricultural land use taxes in any case where they face risk from market and
price (Resolution no.9/CP, 2000) (Man, P.S. 2007, pp.86-87).
In Vietnam, the state exempts farms from income taxes with the maximum permitted period stipulated in
regulations. It reduces income taxes to minimum levels for farms with stable production and business,
or for high value of goods in order to promote the development of the farm economy. Also provided for
are:
•
•
commercial tax exemptions for agricultural products
no water resource taxes for irrigation works, or for using surface water and underground water
within farm boundaries (Decision No.3/CP, 2000)
•
and no tax on exploitation of natural resources for some industrial crops, such as crops used in
the paper industry, wood, and some other special crops (Resolution No.9/CP, 2000) (Man, P.S.
2006, p.87).
INCOME
In 2006, the monthly average income per capita for Vietnam was 363 thousand VND an increase of
31.4% compared to 2004. But the real increase in income of the period 2004 to 2006 was 6.2%, lower
than the real income of the period 2002 -2004 of 10.7% (GSO, 2006. pp 29-30). In 2006, there was an
increase in the minimum salary level (social wage). During 2006 there was an increase in:
•
•
•
production
plant output (mainly based on an increase in rice output)
agricultural and fisheries prices (rice, coffee, rubber, cashew, pork (live weight), shrimp and fish.
Income increased in both urban and rural areas to 1,058 thousand VND and 506 thousand VND
respectively. Up by 29.8% and 33.8% respectively compared to 2004 monthly income levels. The
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CARD Project 050/04 VIE Improvement of Vietnamese fruit through improved post-harvest and supply chain management
fastest growth occurred in the urban areas. Monthly income in the poor households was 184 thousand
VND compared to rich households at 1,542 thousand VND per month (GSO, 2006, pp 29-30). As a
result of the per capita increase in income has lifted the living standards of the poor and decreased the
number of poor households.
The Vietnamese Government indicated that the percentage of poor households according to the new
poverty line of 200 thousand VND for the rural area and 2600 thousand VND for urban area was 15.5%.
The poverty level based on the new poverty line for the Mekong River Delta was 13% of the population
(GSO, 2006, pp 29-30).
Table 4. The percentage of poor households of 2004 and 2006 by the new poverty line of the
Vietnamese Government for the period 2006-2010 (%).
Description
Year 2004 (%)
Year 2006 (%)
Country
Vietnam
18.1
15.5
Urban vs. Rural
Urban
Rural
8.6
21.2
7.7
17
By Region
Red River Delta
North East
North West
North Central Coast
South Central Coast
Central Highlands
South East
12.9
23.2
46.1
29.4
21.3
29.2
6.1
10.1
22.2
39.4
26.6
17.2
24.0
4.6
Mekong River Delta
(Source GSO, 2006. pp. 31)
15.3
13.0
Based on the new Vietnamese Government poverty line, about 13 million people of the total population
are below the poverty line with a further 28 million people living just above the official poverty line (GSO,
2006; Oxfam, 2008)
Many of the poor households are already indebted, and an impact by a natural disaster would cause
significant number of households to slip deeper into to debt. Vietnam has on average about 6 to 8
natural disasters per year and these poor households are amongst the most vulnerable of a community.
In such cases, coping strategies of these households often include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Borrowing from family and friends;
Borrowing money privately at high interest;
Borrowing rice at a set interest rent, per season, to be paid after the next harvest;
Collecting minor natural products,
Seasonal migration to work in cities or farms as physical labourers; and
Working locally as day labourers.
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Natural disasters place these households in even greater debt with no or very little chance of ever
becoming debt free.
EXPENDITURE
The average monthly expenditure of 511 thousand VND for the whole of Vietnam was an increase of
28.9% compared to 2004. Average daily expenditure was 460 thousand VND and increase of 27.9%
compared to 2004. Households living in urban areas spend approximately 2.5 more than those living in
rural areas. The average monthly per capita expenditure in rural areas was 359 thousand VND and
increase of 27%; in urban areas: 738 thousand VND an increase of 24% compared to 2004 (GSO, 2006
p.31-33).
Rural households dedicate a large share of their expenditure to food, 50.2% compared to 43.9% for
urban households.
Table 5. Share of eating, drinking and smoking consumption expenditure in consumption
expenditure for living (%).
Description
Year 2002
Year 2004
Year 2006
Country
Vietnam
56.7
53.5
52.8
Urban vs. Rural
Urban
Rural
51.6
60.0
48.9
56.7
48.2
56.2
By Region
Red River Delta
North East
North West
North Central Coast
South Central Coast
Central Highlands
South East
Mekong River Delta
By Income levels
20% poorest households
53.8
61.2
64.2
58.3
56.4
58.6
52.7
60.5
51.1
58.2
60.0
56.3
53.1
51.3
50.4
56.7
51.5
57
60.2
55.1
54.4
52.2
48
56.2
70.1
49.6
66.5
46.9
65.2
45.8
20% richest households
(Source GSO, 2006. pp. 31)
RURAL INFRASTRUCTURE
ELECTRICITY
In 2006, only 5.8% of rural households were without electricity, a 41% increase since 1994. In 2006
98.9% of communes and 92.4% of villages could access electricity of which 87% of villages had access
to the national power grid. There are 6 provinces and cities (Ho Chi Minh City, Da Nang City, Ninh
Thuan, Tay Ninh, Binh Duong and Tien Giang Province) the have 100% of villages with access to
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CARD Project 050/04 VIE Improvement of Vietnamese fruit through improved post-harvest and supply chain management
electricity. Nevertheless, in some regions and provinces the number of communes, villages and
households having access to power is still very low and these are located mainly in the northern and
central Vietnam.
ROADS
The Mekong River Delta region has the lowest percentage of roads for cars. About 83.2% of communes
have all year round accessible car-roads, which is the lowest in the country. In spite of the remarkable
improvements in rural roads, many roads are causing difficulties to production and peoples lives. The
percentages of communes without car roads connecting to the peoples committee offices are high in
some provinces of Vietnam. In the Mekong River Delta the percentage of communes without roads in
the provinces connecting to the people committee offices are:
•
•
•
•
•
Ca Mau
74.1%
26.4%
29.2%
25%
Soc Trang
Bac Lieu
Kien Gaing
Can Tho
27.3%
Lack of sealed or maintained roads is causing extreme difficulties for many farming communes, villages
and households in the Mekong River Delta of Vietnam. By trying to transport by road highly perishable
produce, for example:- mango, rambutan and milk fruit etc., to market without damaging the fruit is
impossible. A high proportion of fruit are damaged (>10% to 30%) due to the rough conditions of the
roads and the use of traditional packaging methods that cannot protect the fruit adequately from rub and
vibration damage, pressure marks, bruising and contaminants such as dirt, dust, exhaust fumes and
splashing with un-sanitary water and other liquids or solid contaminants such as fertilisers when being
transported.
CLIMATE
The Mekong River Delta has a tropical climate located within a tropical monsoon climate zone with one
rainy season with an average humidity of 75%. There are two distinct seasons in one year. The rainy
season begins in May and ends in late November, with an average rainfall of about 1,800mm annually.
The dry season lasts from December to April. The low lands are usually flooded for two to six months
with water levels ranging between 0.3 to 3 meters in depth depending upon location and yearly rainfall
events (Nguyen, N. H., 2007).
The average temperature is 28°C (82°F), the highest temperature sometimes reaches 39°C (102°F)
around noon in late April, while the lowest may fall below 16°C (61°F) in the early mornings of late
December .
Vietnam ranks eight in the ten most venerable countries in East Asia to weather extremes (World Bank,
2008). According to Nguyen, N. H., 2007, 70% of the Vietnamese’s live in and on agricultural areas
where the major cash crop is rice farming. The major problems Mekong River Delta is facing are
increasing frequency and magnitude of flooding, sea water intrusion with high tide, contaminated soil,
sea level rise and seasonal tropical storms.
LAND
Vietnam is located in the south-eastern extremity of the Indochinese peninsula. Vietnam is about
331,688 square kilometres in size. The distance from north-to-south is about 1,650 kilometres.
Vietnam is about 50 kilometres wide at the narrowest point. Vietnam’s coastline is about 3,260
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